Traditional Chinese teas are classified into six major categories based on their levels of fermentation and processing methods: green, black, white, dark, yellow, and oolong. Each possesses a unique character and a rich history. While tea drinking has become a modern daily ritual and the humble leaf is a common sight, its stories are not always widely known. For instance, where did the now-famous matcha come from? And how did black tea, born from an accident, end up spreading across the globe? This article will guide you through the vibrant culture behind these six teas from various perspectives.
Green Tea: The Quintessential Mainstream Tea
Green tea is the largest and most diverse category of tea, accounting for 70% of total tea production. As the Qingming Festival arrives, the first batch of “Mingqian tea” has likely been harvested and processed. This concept is hyped by tea merchants every spring, but does Mingqian tea truly signify a premium product? And what transformations did green tea, the dominant tea in China, undergo when it crossed the sea to Japan?
Green tea’s long history is partly due to it being an unfermented tea (with fermentation below 5%), which keeps its flavor profile close to that of the original leaf. In ancient times, when tea processing techniques were still rudimentary, the primary method of consumption from the era of Shennong (the Divine Farmer) to the Warring States period was “eating tea.” As brewing techniques evolved, green tea became an indispensable beverage. Many famous teas we know today, such as Xihu Longjing (West Lake Dragon Well) and Biluochun, belong to the green tea family. Of course, their rise to the top two spots in China’s list of famous teas was greatly helped by the Qing emperors Kangxi and Qianlong.
Take Biluochun, for example. Its original name was “Xia Sha Ren Xiang,” which literally translates to “Scares You to Death Fragrance.” According to legend, the buds were so delicate that tea farmers feared they would be crushed in baskets. Instead, young women were tasked with carrying the freshly plucked leaves in the folds of their robes. When brewed, the tea’s aroma would mingle with the maidens’ own fragrance, earning it the nickname “Nuer Xiang” or “Daughter’s Fragrance.” Apparently, even the notoriously unrefined Emperor Qianlong found this name improper and ordered it changed to the more elegant “Biluochun.”
Green tea is cultivated across a vast geographical range, with almost every region in China producing its own distinctive variety. In a quiet indoor setting, people brew a cup, appreciating its color, the dance of the leaves, and its aroma. To achieve a superior cup of green tea, every detail is meticulously refined, including the water, the brewing tools, and the timing of the harvest. This brings us to the renowned “Mingqian tea” and “Yuqian tea.”
“Mingqian tea” refers to tea leaves picked before the Qingming Festival (around early April), while “Yuqian tea” is harvested after Qingming but before the Guyu (“Grain Rain”) festival. Both are considered spring teas. The belief is that after a winter of dormancy, the tea leaves are rich in nutrients and exceptionally tender, making them highly sought after by connoisseurs. Among them, Mingqian tea is considered more precious because most tea bushes do not produce buds that meet picking standards before Qingming, resulting in a smaller yield. But is the quality of Mingqian tea truly as exceptional as its reputation suggests?
In reality, the season is just one criterion for judging tea quality. While leaves picked before Qingming are indeed more tender, the final quality also depends on the tea varietal itself and the local climate. For instance, some high-mountain tea bushes grow slowly, making a pre-Qingming harvest a poor choice. Furthermore, weather conditions vary each year. If the sunlight and temperature before the festival are not ideal, it’s better to let the leaves mature on the bush. Even if high-quality leaves are harvested, the processing techniques at the tea factory will also significantly impact the final product. Therefore, judging a tea’s quality solely based on its harvest season is undoubtedly a one-sided view.
A screenshot from the documentary “Tea: Story of a Leaf.”
In terms of processing, green tea has four main methods: pan-frying (炒青, chǎoqīng), baking (烘青, hōngqīng), sun-drying (晒青, shàiqīng), and steaming (蒸青, zhēngqīng). Pan-fried teas are processed using manual woks or machine tumblers after the “kill-green” step. Baked teas are dried over charcoal or in electric ovens. Sun-drying is a traditional method, but it is relatively crude; therefore, sun-dried green teas are mostly used as raw material (maocha) for processing into tea cakes or bricks (tuocha). The final category is steaming, which uses steam to deactivate enzymes in the leaves and halt oxidation. Steaming is an ancient technique in China, but it gradually fell out of favor. In contrast, it was embraced and popularized in Japan, where most green tea today is produced using this method.
Tea was introduced to Japan from China before the 12th century, but the habit of tea drinking did not become widespread. It wasn’t until the early 13th century, under the promotion of Zen master Eisai, that tea drinking flourished in a nation frequently beset by natural disasters. In his book Kissa Yōjōki (Drinking Tea for Health), Eisai argued, “In China, everyone loves tea, hence they have few heart ailments and live long lives. In contrast, our people are often pale and frail. The reason is that they do not drink tea.” Eisai selected a location in Japan to cultivate tea seeds he brought back from China. The soil and sun exposure were ideal, and the tea produced there remains some of Japan’s finest to this day. That place is Uji.
In disaster-prone Japan, drinking tea was not only for the physical benefits Eisai described but also a form of spiritual solace. The ritual of preparing a bowl of tea provided a moment of tranquility. This kind of psychological healing is seen throughout modern history. For example, during World War II, Winston Churchill insisted that British citizens have access to a hot cup of tea even during the Blitz to bolster morale and maintain their passion for life. Germany’s Fanta and American soldiers’ Coca-Cola, though different beverages, served a similar purpose. Because tea was used to soothe the inner world, the Japanese did not mind dedicating significant time to its preparation, which led to the development of elaborate rituals. From the brewing method to the utensils, the Japanese tea ceremony, or Chadō, became deeply ingrained in the culture.
In the 16th century, the celebrated tea master Sen no Rikyū used his influence in the shogun’s court to further formalize the tea ceremony. He advocated for using different utensils for different seasons and insisted that all tea tools (tea bowl, whisk, ladle, and scoop) be handled with gentle care. While commoners had favored Chinese glazed bowls, Rikyū himself preferred Japanese-made Raku ware. This preference shifted Japanese aesthetic tastes. For those unfamiliar with Raku ware, Rikyū’s influence helped establish a new aesthetic style in Japan known as wabi-sabi, which gives a sense of the unadorned, rustic nature of these bowls.
At that time, the Japanese tea ceremony was predominantly matcha-dō, which involved whisking powdered tea, a method adopted from the Song dynasty’s diancha practice. However, in the mid-18th century, another influential school, sencha-dō, emerged. The focus of sencha-dō was the complete opposite of matcha-dō. While matcha-dō emphasized the ritual and process of tea drinking, with strict requirements for the setting, utensils, and movements, sencha-dō celebrated the natural, authentic flavor of the tea leaves themselves. The founder of sencha-dō is said to be a man named Baisao (“the Old Tea Seller”), whose real name was Shibayama Motoaki. While selling tea in Kyoto, he would simply boil water and toss a handful of leaves in. This simple, unpretentious way of drinking tea quickly gained popularity among the Japanese public.
“The True History of Tea” by Victor H. Mair and Erling Hoh.
Of course, matcha-dō also evolved. The powdered tea it uses successfully preserved a preparation method that had been lost in China since the Song dynasty. Today, matcha is a popular flavor in desserts, appealing to younger generations. In truth, pure tea prepared via the traditional matcha ceremony is much more bitter than sencha, and many find it challenging on the first try. Additionally, if you plan to buy matcha powder for baking, it’s crucial to know that only powdered tea made from steamed green tea leaves can be called matcha. Powder made from green tea processed in other ways is simply green tea powder. With modern chemical advancements, distinguishing between the two by appearance can be difficult. But remember this: while the only difference is the processing method, the price gap between matcha powder and green tea powder is enormous—matcha can be a hundred times more expensive.
Black Tea: From Accident to Global Staple
If green tea is the beverage ambassador of East Asia, then black tea has made its mark on every corner of the globe. From China to Southeast Asia, North America, and Africa, black tea is a common sight. This tea, born from an accident, has become a truly international drink as knowledge of it has spread.
During the transition from the Ming to the Qing dynasty, a troop of soldiers passed through Tongmu Village in the Wuyi Mountains of Fujian and occupied a local tea factory. With nowhere else to sleep, the soldiers rested on piles of freshly harvested tea leaves. After they departed the next day, the tea farmers discovered that the leaves the soldiers had slept on had turned red. To mitigate their losses, the farmers reluctantly roasted these “inferior” leaves and sold them at a low price. The resulting brew had a surprisingly rich, pine-smoked aroma.
The locals, believing it to be a failed batch of green tea, refused to buy it. Little did they know that within a few years, this “failed” tea would take the world by storm and become one of the Qing dynasty’s primary exports. Its name was black tea.
Many European teas we see today are black tea-based, but for the British, who were the first to engage in large-scale tea trade with China, accepting black tea was a long process. When tea first entered Europe through the Dutch East India Company, Britain had no colonial power in Southeast Asia and had to purchase tea secondhand from the Dutch. This mysterious leaf from the East was described by European travelers as a precious luxury item that could cure diseases, slow aging, and symbolize civilization, leisure, and refinement. Furthermore, the Chinese dynasties guarded the secrets of tea cultivation and production as a high-level state secret. Europeans could only obtain the finished product from merchants, remaining ignorant about its raw material, origins, and varieties. Imports from China were extremely limited. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Portuguese imported tea from Japan, but this trade nearly ceased with Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s persecution of Christians.
In 1650, one pound of tea in England cost between £6 and £10, which would be equivalent to £500-£850 today. Even the cheapest tea at the time sold for a price comparable to 4,000 RMB per jin (approx. 500g) in modern currency. This was after prices had already begun to fall due to increased trade volume. It wasn’t until 1689, when the British East India Company established official contact with the Qing government and began importing tea in bulk, that the price dropped below £1 per pound. However, the British were perpetually confused about the quality of Chinese tea, often finding it inconsistent.
“Empire of Tea” by Markman Ellis.
In 1717, Thomas Twining (founder of the brand we know today) opened London’s first tea room. His business strategy revolved around offering different blends of tea. The reason for this innovation was the vast difference in taste between batches. Twining’s grandson later explained his grandfather’s method: “If he tasted twenty chests of tea, he would find each one different: some strong and astringent, others light and weak… By mixing and matching teas from different chests, we can create a blend more palatable than any single chest. Moreover, this is the only way to ensure consistent quality.” A British sailor from the same era recorded in his log that one must be cautious when dealing with Chinese merchants, as some teas were dark in color and looked like poor quality. This “poor quality” tea was most likely Chinese black tea.
It was only later that the British learned black tea was distinct from green tea, which sparked their interest. After returning from a trip to China, the English clergyman John Ovington introduced three types of Chinese tea to his countrymen: Bohea (from Wuyi), Singlo (from Songluo), and Bingcha (cake tea). He noted that Bohea was “esteemed first by the Chinese.” This sparked a trend among the British for drinking high-quality Wuyi black tea.
However, due to the Qing government’s strict secrecy surrounding tea knowledge, most Britons were unaware that the different types of tea resulted from processing variations. They mistakenly believed there were separate green tea trees, black tea trees, and so on.
The crucial steps in black tea production are withering and oxidation (often called fermentation). Withering removes moisture from the leaves and can be done in sunlight, indoors naturally, or with applied heat, the last of which is most common in modern production. The oxidation process develops compounds like theaflavins and thearubigins, which give black tea its characteristic reddish-brown color. Black tea is typically categorized into three types based on processing and leaf style: Souchong (小种, Xiǎozhǒng), Gongfu (工夫), and Broken. It’s worth noting that Gongfu tea is often mistakenly written as “功夫红茶” (Kung Fu Black Tea). The characters are different, and the Minnan dialect pronunciation of “Gongfu” (工夫, meaning ‘effort’ or ‘time’) is distinct from “Kung Fu” (功夫). The correct term is “Gongfu Black Tea.”
Gongfu and broken black teas are common export commodities, with the latter often used in tea bags. As a major export, black tea’s influence in the 19th century extended far beyond Britain. After signing a treaty with Tsarist Russia in the fifth year of Emperor Yongzheng’s reign (1727), China began trading with Russia, and black tea was introduced there. For Russians living in cold climates, black tea was an ideal warming beverage. Unlike the British, Russians preferred strong tea and would often add jam, lemon slices, brandy, or rum to a potent brew, pairing it with bread and pastries to create a meal in itself.
The French drank black tea in a style similar to the British, emphasizing leisure and adding milk, sugar, or even egg. They would host tea parties at home, complete with baked sweets. In India, a cup of milk tea made from black tea is an essential post-meal ritual. The preparation method is unique: black tea, milk, cloves, and cardamom are boiled together in a pot, then strained to create the beverage known as Masala Chai.
Black tea’s ideal compatibility with various ingredients allowed it to conquer the world. In the 19th century, to secure their supply, the British actively encouraged tea cultivation in their colonies and promoted tea-drinking culture in other regions alongside the gold rushes. By the late 19th century, Australia and New Zealand had become the countries with the highest per capita tea consumption. In terms of cultivation, besides fostering competition between India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka), the British also established tea plantations in African countries, most notably Kenya. After a century of development, Kenya is now the world’s third-largest producer of black tea. However, due to soil and climate constraints, the quality of Kenyan tea is not ideal, and despite its massive output, most of it is used for tea bags.
Amidst the boom in black tea cultivation, branding became a puzzle that merchants had to solve. The undisputed champion of this era was Lipton. It is said that its founder, Thomas Lipton, was a fanatic who thought about tea promotion 24 hours a day. In one famous story, the cargo ship Lipton was on ran into trouble, and the captain ordered passengers to jettison some cargo. Lipton immediately volunteered all of his tea. Before tossing the crates overboard, he wrote the Lipton company name on each one. The crates floated on the ocean currents to the Arabian Peninsula. The Arabs who found them on the beach brewed the tea, instantly fell in love with it, and Lipton entered the Arabian market with virtually zero investment. Given that Lipton was as much a master of hyperbole as he was of advertising, the truth of this story is debatable. Nevertheless, it illustrates the fierce competition and flamboyant marketing that characterized the world of black tea.
“Got Tea Qi: Myths and Legends of Chinese Tea” by Zeng Yuan.
White and Dark Tea: Gentle Modern Brews
Neither white tea nor dark tea (if we exclude Puerh) has a vast number of varieties, but within the six major categories, their advantages are particularly clear. White tea boasts the best antioxidant effects of any tea, while dark tea has a mellow flavor and can be prepared in various ways. Both can be considered ideal modern beverages.
Earlier, it was mentioned that green tea is the most ancient tea in China, but this point is debated. Some argue that white tea was the first type of tea consumed by the Chinese. The origin and definition of white tea are subjects of much discussion, mainly because it is difficult to ascertain what the term “white tea” referred to throughout history.
One theory is that historical white tea simply meant white-colored tea leaves. Due to genetic mutation or fungal infection, some tea plants suffered from albinism, causing their leaves to be white while still on the bush, hence the name. A second theory suggests it referred to tea leaves naturally covered in a layer of silvery-white downy hairs. Such tea plants do exist, like the modern Fuding Dabai and Fu’an Dabai varieties. The third theory aligns with the modern understanding of white tea as a category defined by its specific, minimal processing and oxidation level. All these theories find some support in historical texts. Lu Yu’s The Classic of Tea (Cha Jing) contains the first mention of white tea, but only in a single sentence: “Three hundred li east of Yongjia County, there is a white tea mountain.” It offers no details on the tea’s appearance or processing. Emperor Huizong’s Treatise on Tea (Daguan Chalun) also mentions white tea and describes its production in detail; however, the process he describes would clearly result in a steamed green tea.
Regarding its historical origins, some researchers believe that, considering the ancient medicinal use of tea and primitive storage conditions, early people would not have pan-fried, rolled, or fermented the leaves. Instead, they would have simply sun-dried them for storage. This method would most likely produce what we now call white tea. Given the lack of a definitive answer and the changing meaning of the term in historical sources, the “white tea” we discuss here refers specifically to the modern category.
White tea is exceptionally well-suited for modern wellness lifestyles. Its unique sun-withering process results in the highest flavonoid content of all tea types. While other teas contain around 0.1 mg/g of flavonoids, white tea boasts 2.2 mg/g. In tea, flavonoids primarily contribute to a bitter and astringent taste. Logically, white tea should be the most bitter. Curiously, however, white tea also has a much higher amino acid content than other teas (3% compared to green tea’s 1.4%, the second highest), and amino acids contribute to sweetness in the brew. As a result, a good white tea has a distinctly sweet and refreshing aftertaste (huigan).
This leading combination of amino acids and flavonoids gives white tea a unique advantage in antioxidant properties, especially aged white tea. A 20-year-old aged white tea can have an astonishing 13 mg/g of flavonoids. In the human body, flavonoids can scavenge free radicals, providing an antioxidant effect that may help counter the effects of radiation from electronic screens, making it an ideal tea for urban office workers. However, white tea’s main processing involves only withering, with no rolling, which preserves the plant’s original “cooling” nature. Among the six tea categories, it is considered the “coldest” in terms of Traditional Chinese Medicine properties. Therefore, individuals with a naturally “cold” or weak constitution should drink it in moderation. In contrast, its color-opposite, dark tea, has a much “warmer” character.
“A New Narrative of White Tea” by Li Jianguo.
Yellow and Oolong Tea
The Vastly Different Fates of a “Favorite” and an “Outcast”
Though both are members of the six major tea categories, yellow tea and oolong tea have had starkly contrasting fortunes. Oolong tea boasts a wide variety of types and is a clear favorite, whether brewed pure, used in blends, or featured in bottled drinks. Yellow tea, on the other hand, is not only shrinking in production scale but has also seen some of its varieties gradually absorbed into the green tea category. According to 2019 statistics, yellow tea production accounted for a mere 0.35% of the total, making it a truly marginalized tea.
One reason for yellow tea’s awkward position is its ambiguous identity. It is not vastly different from green tea, with the main distinction being an additional “sealed yellowing” or “smothering” process (闷黄, mènhuáng). This step involves piling the leaves while they are still hot after the kill-green or rolling stage, allowing the trapped heat and moisture to induce a yellowing reaction. This process is difficult to control; the temperature and humidity before piling can greatly affect the final quality of the tea. Its appearance resembles stale green tea. Furthermore, many green tea drinkers seek a clear, vibrant green liquor. When they see the yellowish-green infusion of a yellow tea, they often mistake it for a low-quality green tea.
In terms of taste, yellow tea is also rather mediocre. It is not as fresh as green tea, as fragrant and sweet as black tea, or as refreshing as white tea. Compared to dark tea, it lacks richness and depth. Today, many yellow teas are used in the production of instant tea and bottled beverages. Yellow tea has the lowest soluble sugar content of all tea types, making it a suitable base for low-sugar drinks.
If one were to try to elevate yellow tea’s status, the best angle would likely be its health benefits. Its cultural history is not particularly deep, having only formally appeared as a trade commodity in the form of brick tea during the Ming dynasty. In terms of health, yellow tea has a notable positive effect on the digestive system. Experiments have also shown that extracts from yellow tea are more significant in lowering blood sugar and lipids—however, these studies were limited to the most robust type, Huangdacha. For the milder Huangyacha and Huangxiaocha, the health benefits are not significantly different from those of other teas.